a) voting: primaries, electoral college, popular vote, case work: the November 2004 general elections
Manuel, pages 69-71
We the people of the , in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquillity … (the Preamble of the Constitution). We the people was at that time truly revolutionary but in the original context, it meant also white and male landowners.
Conception of electing a President with the Electoral College is much debated. The idea of the founding fathers was to pick the best individual. But from 1796 onwards, with Adams and Jefferson, it became a question of party; the two represented two different movements. General policy became important. It was no longer a question of personal merit, but the confrontation of political ideologies, organisations, and, in short, political parties. Democrats: their first President was Andrew Jackson and Republicans: their President was Abraham Lincoln.
The longevity of the two-party-system: In election, no proportional representation but the winner takes all. Democrats and Republicans have an understanding on major principles. The difference between the two is more a question of method and approach, although in this context, Democrats are considered to be more progressive than their Republican counterparts. Crossover vote is common in the due to the fact that both parties seek the same support from the broad centre of the electorate. The idea that politicians were common men grew to dominate the American political spirit. Even conservative, rich Republicans must at the same time somehow seem common; you have to be a typical American (contradictory of the independent candidate 1992, the charismatic billionaire Ross Perot).
The Primaries, the National Conventions
Primaries:
A single-day event in which voters elect delegates to represent their preference for a candidate at the national nominating convention.
2004 primaries:
A Democratic candidate had to win 2,162 of 4,322 delegates to win the party’s presidential nomination. See document handout 2 p. 3. Super Tuesday: The popular vote and the Electoral College, see table Handout 2 p. 3. Election Day.
Factfile 3 p. 73
The Process of Electing a President:
The Primaries: show through popular vote, who is the best candidate for each party. Not held in every state.
The Conventions: Different delegates come together to vote on a candidate. Each state must vote in a block.
The Campaign: In the , creating an image is of the utmost importance. The personality of the candidate will be one of the most analyzed subjects during the campaign.
The Election: Practically when an American votes, he votes for the President / Vice President. Technically he votes for the electors of the Electoral College who in turn vote for the candidates.
Text 3 p. 78
The Intricate Problem of the Electoral College
Under the constitution, the occupant of the White House is determined not by the millions who troop through the polling booths on the first Tuesday in November but by the Electoral College, for which the ballots are actually being cast on Election Day. The college comprises representatives of the 50 States and the District of Columbia. Each state has two senators and a varying number of congressmen, determined by population. This all adds up to 538- equivalent to 100 senators, 435 congressmen, and the three DC (District of Columbia) votes. The presidency has to win an absolute majority of the college votes- 270 or more. They are gained on a winner-takes-all basis in each state: even a margin of one vote in the popular contest means that all the State’s electoral votes are secured. (Mr. Carter won against President Ford in 1976 with a just vote, 9,224 away form disaster in a total ballot of 80 million and at the same time, his majority in the popular vote was clear, with 27 votes more than he needed.
If there is a third runner with any hope of winning in several states, then there is a real chance of a deadlock. With no outright winner, the choice of President then has to be made by the House of Representatives (Each sate one vote). Composition of the House of Representatives will depend on the November elections so it is impossible to guess the verdict. This situation has not arisen since 1824.
If no result has been achieved by the inauguration day, the whole thing shifts to the Senate. If the House has not provided a President, then the man selected by a simple majority vote in the Senate takes over.
The constitutional convention in 1787 gave the small states a bonus representation by making three the minimum vote; the large states got their proportional element, according to population, and it gave a final voice to Congress.
The founding Fathers anticipated that the selection of a President would be made in the House nineteen times out of twenty. It has actually happened one time in 44.
The merit of the current system is that it obliges candidates to campaign nationally. On the question of checks and balances, the electoral power of the large states in the college is seen as a compensation for their under-representation in the Senate.
The right to vote
Presidential elections: the popular vote and the Electoral College:
See picture p. 4 on the handout:
1. One candidate for each party. 2. The states choose one to represent each party. Each state chooses their candidate, and then they will all meet together in parties. 3. Meeting between candidates, the candidate had to obtain a certain number of votes to become the Party’s presidential nomination. 4. During this campaign, the candidates present their platforms (programs) and the President ticket (President and Vice-President). 5. Election day: citizens vote, popular vote vs. the Electoral College vote. Citizens vote: “elector” in each state. To become President, you need to obtain 270 electoral votes.
The number of Representatives who vote is calculated by states plus two. So for Vermont (a small state), there will be one Representative + 2, so 3 voters from Representatives. To calculate the votes, it is a system of majority. So for Vermont, they got 51% for Bush, so he gets 3 electoral votes and nothing for Kerry. For N.Y (with 52 Representatives), they voted 51% for Kerry, so he got 52 electoral votes and Bush nothing. At the end of the day, they calculate and count all the electoral votes for each candidate and that’s how the president is elected.
b) The two-party system
B) The president: qualifications, powers, limitations
Manuel p. 72
From 1869 onwards there were only a Republican and a Democrat Party represented as Presidents of the . Before, there were also Whig, Federalist (Washington, Adams) and Democratic-Republican Presidents.
Qualifications (eligibility, number of terms)
Conditions to be allowed to be American President you have to be a natural-born American. 35 years old at least and you need to have lived on the American continent for at least 14 years. 22nd amendment: no more than two terms. Most Presidents choose to run for two terms. Either two terms and you’re out or you resign: Nixon in 1974 (Watergate scandal), impeachment happened nearly three times but not effectively.
Limitations (impeachment):
E.g. Clinton (Lewinsky), Nixon (started in 1970ies so he resigned before. During the campaign for elections, the democrat headquarters was plugged: Nixon denied. Tapes with conversations about this but he refused to give them out. Finally, the Supreme Court asked to give them out and so he resigned). If that happens, it’s the Senate who is going to act as a court.
There have been four Presidents being murdered: 1963 Kennedy, 1864 Lincoln. Seven died in office, among them four were assassinated. What happens? The Vice-President takes the job until the next election.
Constitutional powers (head of state, commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces, appointment of officials, legislative powers: right to veto)
The powers of the President:
Head of the country (represents nation at home and abroad and defends national interests), commander of the military forces, in charge of appointing high-ranking representatives (ambassadors, federal officers in every state, senates,…) but checks and balance: has to be approved by the Senate, which organises debates to discuss really if the person is good for the job. Example lately, job in Supreme Court, Bush proposed but only the 4th was taken, power to initiate legislation (to be then voted by Congress).
State of the Union message: (from 1992: http://www.gpoaccess.gov/sou/index.html):
Another power of the President: he is to give a speech inside the Congress about what is going to happen in terms of legislation in the coming year. Speech once a year: State of the union message, very details sometimes surprising, for ex. Bush trying to find alternatives to oil, talking about special energy cars,..
Bush’s state of union message:
He’s talking about death of Coretta King (Martin Luther King’s wife)
- history
- debates will always be in Senate. 2 parties, 2 branches, debates, differences but together we will be strong.
- Choices for the future, assuming “enemies of freedom”
- Prosperity, economy (no isolation). Only way to protect is to continue American leadership. We should never not believe that is in the Prime.
- Justice, two new members (judges), Supreme Court. Justice always servant of the law.
- Commemorating someone: Sandro D. O’Connor, one of the judges just retired.
- Legislation: cloning (human life as a gift from our creator) embryo: he’s going to fight against research on embryos. Stem-cell research.
- Government ethics will be pushed (respect the law)
Very symbolical speech!
Inaugural Address (January 20) e.g. J.F. Kennedy, Jan 20, 1961: “My fellow Americans, ask not what can do for you- ask what you can do for your country. My fellow citizens of the world: ask not what will do for you, but what together we can do for the freedom of man.”
The regular veto, the pocket veto
Executive orders, pardons
Additional powers: Party support, public support
President is the head of the state, legislative powers, every year speech in front of Congress (Global overview of politics). He can recommend legislation. The budget is always proposed from the White House. He can not dissolve the Parliament.
One specific power: power to veto.
C) The president’s staff
All Presidents remain to one party and represent it. Fireside chat of Roosevelt: media. He used the radio a lot. The White House is referred to as the President’s House but also other people. West Wing of WH: media working for the President. Structure of people working for the Prime Minister and the President and Executive Office.
a) The vice-president
Vice-President: Dick Jenny: a ticket (election: closely associated).
Vice-President will replace the President if something happens to him. E.g. President Ford after Nixon stays in office until end of the term. This person must be someone with the same type of principles than the President.
Johnson replaced Kennedy. Vice-President: President of the Senate (strange): another example of checks and balance: 100 senators, sometimes 50/50 vote, so VP casts a vote.
b) The Cabinet, the Executive Office of the President
Manuel p. 46:
The President’s Cabinet has got 14 Departments (of State, Treasury, Agriculture, Justice, Labor, Transporting, Education, Health and Human Services…). With the exception of the Department of Justice, which is headed by the Attorney General, each department is directed by a Secretary.
Composition and role: Vice-President and heads of 15 executive departments (=Secretaries).
Homework: Who’s Who in G.W Bush’s Cabinet?
Gale Norton: Secretary of the Interior. The Department of the Interior oversees such agencies as the Bureau of Indian Affairs, the United States Geological Survey, and the National Park Service.
Don Evans: Secretary of Commerce. Concerned with business and industry. Replaced by Carlos M. Gutierrez since 2005.
John Ashcroft: Attorney General. Concerned with legal affairs and is the chief law enforcement officer of the United States government. Replaced by Alberto Gonzales since 2005
Donald Rumsfeld: Secretary of Defense. Concerned with the armed services and military matters.
Colin Powell: Secretary of State. Concerned with foreign affairs. Has been replaced by Condoleezza Rice since 2005.
Tom Ridge: Secretary of Homeland Security. The body concerned with protecting the American homeland and the safety of American citizens. Replaced by James Loy (February 1, 2005 – February 15, 2005) and Michael Chertoff since February 15, 2005.
www.whitehouse.gov
Manuel p. 47:
Each department of the President’s Cabinet is represented in the President’s Administration by a secretary (Secretary of State, of Treasury…).
Department heads and other higher officers. George Bush’s Office includes:
Council of Economic Advisers- CEA- 1946, Council on Environmental Quality, Domestic Policy Council, National Economic Council, National Security Council-NSC-1947, Office of Administration, Office of Faith-Based and Community Initiatives, Office of Management and Budget- OMB- 1970 (big part), Office of National AIDS Policy, Office of National Drug Control Policy, Office of Science and Technology Policy, Office of the United States Trade Representative, Office of Homeland Security- 2001, President’s Foreign Intelligence Advisory Board, USA Freedom Corps, White House Military Office.
And the White House Office: The department of Homeland (means counter terrorist nowadays) Security: Oct., 2001: “The President established the Office of Homeland Security and the Homeland Security Council, following the tragic events of September 11. His charge to the nation’s new director of homeland defence was to develop and coordinate a comprehensive national strategy to strengthen protections against terrorist threats or attacks in the . (www.whitehous.gov/homeland/)
In the Cabinet, you have the Vice-President, depends on the administration: each President decides what department are going to be included in Cabinet. Statement on the priorities of your administration. In theory, more advice and consultations on problems, don’t decide.
Secretaries: Norton, Rumsfeld, Rice…
Executive office is next to Cabinet p. 47, different is that it’s much larger. Job is to consider what is going on today and to forecast (future trends for economy, security, people…) to advice President.
Decisions on all aspects of American life. Experts who think in terms of future. Special assistance to the President.
c) The federal agencies
www.whitehouse.gov/government/independent-agencies.html, managed by the state with federal money.
About 40 agencies including NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration), CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), EPA (Environmental Protection Agency), FDA (Food and Drug Administration), FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation spy inside), Securities Exchange Commission (SEC), Peace Corps…CIA (spy outside)
Heads of those agencies are appointed by the President and confirmed by the Senate which is another example for checks and balances.
4. The legislative branch
A) elections
General elections are every two years. Mid-term elections also exist. A Congress who doesn’t has the same party as the President can happen but isn’t very often. What happens much more often is that there is a switch in the mid-term election, Congress belonging suddenly to another party.
November 2004 general elections
Primary results: Democratic Delegates Scorecard as of March 11, 2004.
Kerry: 2,162, Edwards: 534, Dean: 170, Clark: 57, Sharpton: 27, Kucinich: 23, Gephardt: 0, Lieberman: 0, M. Braun: 0.
President: 270 electoral votes needed to win. Bush had 286(51%) electoral votes, Kerry 252 (48%). Bush is a Republican while Kerry is a Democrat.
G. W. Bush was elected in November 2001, first Tuesday after the first Monday. 2000 is an even number, 2001 an odd number. Bush was finally in the office in January 2001. General elections in 2008 but Bush will be President until 2009 in January when the new President goes into office.
Bumper stickers are the way of life. You put them on your car or wherever you want to show your political preference. Democrats use the colour red and the donkey as a symbol and the Republicans use the colour blue and the elephant as a symbol. More locally, you can find stickers for democratic or republican candidates. Oliver North was a republican candidate for the US Senate. “Ollie does is lie” was a sentence of a bumper because he was convicted of lying to a US Court for trafficking weapons in the military. You can have stickers of people you like or dislike.
The road to the White House:
Candidates enter race (September 1999 the Republican Party, January 2000 the Democratic Party).
February to June: the state primaries.
August: the national conventions
September to November: the campaign
November 7th 2000: the Election Day
January 18th 2001: the inauguration day.
Factfile 5 p. 75
Voter Turnout in Presidential Elections (figures: percent voting high in 60ies, around 95%, then constantly lower until an all-time low in 1996 of 65%)???
Text 9 p. 87
Mass Media and Election Campaigns
At least as important as personal party contact: contact through the mass media, mainly newspaper, radio and television. Individuals are sometimes open to persuasion, uninterested in politics. Impact of information may be different depending on the type of media through which it is received.
(Television viewer had a more unfavourable impression of Nixon than radio listeners in the debates with Kennedy). Television underinforms its audience by rarely offering more than a minute or two on one story. The more the public wants information and is motivated to seek it, the more important newspapers become.
Generally, television alerts the public to a variety of topics; newspapers inform the public in greater depth on a few topics. TV debates (such as the one between Ford and Carter, in favour of Ford) represent an impressive instance of media influence over public opinion.
Text 11 p. 89
Theories on Recent Non-voting
Decline in turnout over the last two decades although legal restrictions on voting have eased and education levels have increased. One reason might be the fact, that the expansion of the electorate in 1971 to include eighteen-year-olds didn’t have a lot of impact because young people are less likely to vote than older people. Another possibility is that “calling the election” early in the evening, before the polls close reduces turnout. Once potential voters learn a winner in the race for president, they will no longer be interested in voting for a president or any other office. A supplement reason: The style of media coverage of the campaign has turned elections into a “spectator sport” which voters watch with varying degrees of interest but feel no need for involvement.
Approximately two-thirds of the decline in turnout over the period between 1952 and 1980 can be attributed to two factors: a decline in the perceptions of voters that government is responsive to them and their needs; and a decline in the partisanship of voters.
General elections: the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. Mid-term elections. No other civil office. The November 2004 elections: figures.
B) Making of Congress
The Congress is considered as the first branch of the government. They wanted a difference to the British system. They build and pass laws. Congress is the body responsible for making American laws. The Congress has got two chambers: The House of Representatives and the Senate.
a) The House of Representatives
Factfile 2 p. 73, completed on handout
Presidents and Composition of Congress, by Political Party, 1871-1997
Majority in the House (12 out of 19 Congresses) has been the Democratic Party, and in the Senate only (9 out of 19) have been Democrats, so there were mostly Republicans.
Clinton (D) 2nd term Congress majority is republican: that explains that in those years, there might be more vetoes from the President and the reverse. After that, for some years there were republicans so it was easier.
Composition: 435 members= Representatives, two-year terms: mid-term elections, every two years general election, elected by people from single member districts or constituencies, on a population basis (600,000 people on average and at least one Representative by state). Every census: redistricting. A district represents about 600,000 people. Vermont for example only got one Representative due to its small number of inhabitants. The voting system has got some consequences. They’ve got a close relationship with the electors. In a practical manner, if you’ve got a doubt or a problem (school…), the office of Representatives in your town will help you. This is calles case work.
There are very strong lobbies for big groups. Pressure, lobbies (consumer groups, businesses,…).
5 Delegates: D.C, Samoa, Virgin Islands, Guam, Puerto Rico (no voting right).
Qualifications: 25 y.o., 7 years a citizen, inhabitant of the state. No term limit (seniority).
If you want to work in Congress, there are some requirements. You can become a Representative or a Senator even if you’re not born in the .
To be a Representative, you need to be at least 25 years old, citizen at least for 7 years and you need to live in the state where you want to be elected. No term limit, you can be Representative for 10 times or more if you want. Seniority is important as you get the more responsibility the longer you are in the House.